Book Summary: The Elements of Style

Chapter 1 — Elementary Rules of Usage

• Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding ‘s.

  • This rule applies regardless of the final consonant of the noun.
  • Examples: Charles’s friend, Burns’s poems, the witch’s malice
  • Exceptions include possessive of ancient proper names ending in -es or -is, the possessive Jesus’, and phrases like "for conscience’ sake".
  • Possessive pronouns like hers, its, theirs, yours, and ours do not use an apostrophe.
  • Indefinite pronouns, however, do use an apostrophe to show possession. Examples: one’s rights, somebody else’s umbrella
  • It is important to distinguish between it’s (contraction of "it is") and its (possessive).

• In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.

  • This is known as the "serial comma".
  • Examples: red, white, and blue; gold, silver, or copper; He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.
  • In business firm names, the last comma is usually omitted.

• Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.

  • Examples: The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.
  • Use commas to set off dates, names in direct address, abbreviations like etc., i.e., e.g., academic degrees, and titles following a name.
  • Do not use commas to separate a noun from a restrictive term of identification. Examples: Billy the Kid, The novelist Jane Austen
  • Use commas for nonrestrictive relative clauses and clauses indicating time or place, but not for restrictive clauses.
  • Use a comma after introductory phrases or dependent clauses.

• Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause.

  • Examples: The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
  • Use a comma before conjunctions like as (meaning "because"), for, or, nor, while (meaning "and at the same time").
  • No comma is needed after the conjunction if a dependent clause or introductory phrase requiring a comma precedes the second independent clause.
  • Use a comma if the subject is the same for both clauses and the connective is but, but omit the comma if the connective is and and the relation between statements is close.

• Do not join independent clauses with a comma.

  • Use a semicolon to separate two or more grammatically complete clauses not joined by a conjunction.
  • Examples: Mary Shelley’s works are entertaining; they are full of engaging ideas.
  • You may also write each clause as a separate sentence.
  • Use a comma if a conjunction is inserted.
  • A semicolon is still required if the second clause is preceded by an adverb like accordingly, besides, then, therefore, or thus.
  • A comma is preferable when clauses are very short and similar in form, or when the tone is conversational. Examples: Man proposes, God disposes.

• Do not break sentences in two.

  • Avoid using periods for commas.
  • It is permissible to use a period for emphasis, but only if the emphasis is truly warranted.

• Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation.

  • A colon indicates that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause.
  • Examples: Your dedicated whittler requires three props: a knife, a piece of wood, and a back porch.
  • Use a colon to join two independent clauses if the second interprets or amplifies the first, or to introduce a quotation that supports or contributes to the preceding clause.
  • Colons are also used in formal letter salutations, time notations, and separating titles from subtitles.

• Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long appositive or summary.

  • A dash is a stronger separator than a comma, less formal than a colon, and more relaxed than parentheses.
  • Examples: His first thought on getting out of bed — if he had any thought at all — was to get back in again.

• The number of the subject determines the number of the verb.

  • Words between the subject and verb do not affect the verb’s number.
  • Use a singular verb in a relative clause following "one of..." or a similar expression when the relative is the subject.
  • Use a singular verb after each, either, everyone, everybody, neither, nobody, someone.
  • Use the singular verb with none when it means "no one" or "not one", and the plural verb when it suggests more than one.
  • A compound subject joined by and usually requires a plural verb, but some inseparable compounds or those qualified by each or every take a singular verb.
  • A singular subject remains singular even if connected to other nouns by with, as well as, in addition to, except, together with, and no less than.
  • A linking verb agrees with the number of its subject.
  • Some plural-looking nouns take a singular verb, and vice versa. Learn the idioms.

• Use the proper case of pronoun.

  • Personal pronouns and who change form depending on whether they are subjects or objects.
  • Examples: Will Jane or he be hired, do you think?
  • When who introduces a subordinate clause, its case depends on its function in that clause.
  • A pronoun in a comparison is nominative if it is the subject of a stated or understood verb.
  • Avoid “understood” verbs by supplying them.
  • Use the simple personal pronoun as a subject, not the reflexive pronoun.
  • Use the possessive case to show ownership.
  • Gerunds usually require the possessive case, while present participles as verbals take the objective case.

• A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.

  • Ensure the participle refers to the sentence’s subject, not another noun.
  • Examples: Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.
  • The same rule applies to participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases at the beginning of a sentence.

Chapter 2 — Elementary Principles of Composition

• Choose a suitable design and hold to it.

  • Every piece of writing has a basic underlying structure.
  • Writers may follow or deviate from this design depending on their skills, needs, and the writing process.
  • Planning and foreseeing the shape of the writing is crucial for effectiveness.

• Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic.

  • A paragraph can be any length as long as it holds together, from a single sentence to a long passage.
  • Divide your subject into topics, each addressed in a separate paragraph for the reader's benefit.
  • Avoid single-sentence paragraphs except for transitional sentences.
  • In dialogue, each speech is usually a separate paragraph.
  • Start paragraphs with a topic sentence or a transitional sentence.
  • Narration and description may use concise opening statements to introduce details.
  • Paragraph breaks can improve readability and provide visual cues.

• Use the active voice.

  • The active voice is generally more direct and vigorous than the passive voice.
  • Examples: I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.
  • Use the passive voice when necessary, such as when the actor is unknown or unimportant, or when the emphasis is on the receiver of the action.
  • The active voice is often more concise and impactful.

• Put statements in positive form.

  • Make definite assertions and avoid weak, negative language.
  • Use "not" for denial or antithesis, not evasion.
  • Examples: He usually came late. / She thought the study of Latin a waste of time.
  • Express negatives in positive form for greater clarity and strength.
  • Use negative and positive in opposition for stronger structure.
  • Avoid unnecessary auxiliaries or conditionals that sound irresolute.

• Use definite, specific, concrete language.

  • Prefer specific, definite, and concrete language over general, vague, and abstract language.
  • Examples: It rained every day for a week. / He grinned as he pocketed the coin.
  • Specific details and concrete terms create vivid imagery and engage the reader's attention.
  • Provide specific examples when dealing with general principles.

• Omit needless words.

  • Vigorous writing is concise.
  • Eliminate unnecessary words and phrases that add no value to the sentence.
  • Examples: whether / no doubt / used for fuel / he / hastily / this subject / because
  • Avoid "the fact that" and replace it with more concise alternatives.
  • Combine sentences that express a single complex idea into one sentence.

• Avoid a succession of loose sentences.

  • Vary sentence structure to avoid monotony and improve readability.
  • Recast loose sentences into simple sentences, sentences with semicolons, periodic sentences, or sentences with three clauses.
  • Choose the structure that best reflects the relationship between thoughts.

• Express coordinate ideas in similar form.

  • Use parallel construction to show the relationship between similar ideas.
  • Examples: Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method.
  • Parallelism improves clarity and readability.

• Keep related words together.

  • Word placement is crucial for showing relationships and avoiding confusion.
  • Place related words and phrases together, and separate unrelated ones.
  • Examples: He noticed a large stain right in the center of the rug.
  • Avoid separating the subject and principal verb with a phrase or clause that can be moved to the beginning.
  • Place relative pronouns immediately after their antecedents.
  • Modifiers should be placed next to the words they modify.
  • Arrange modifiers to avoid suggesting wrong relationships.

• In summaries, keep to one tense.

  • Use the present tense for summaries of dramas, and either present or past tense for summaries of poems, stories, or novels.
  • Use the perfect tense for antecedent action if the summary is in the present tense, and the past perfect tense if the summary is in the past tense.
  • Avoid shifting tenses, as it creates confusion and undermines clarity.
  • Minimize phrases like "he said" or "she stated" when summarizing someone else's work.
  • Focus on analysis and interpretation, not just summary, when discussing literature.

• Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.

  • The end of a sentence is the most prominent position for emphasis.
  • Examples: Since that time, humanity has advanced in many ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.
  • The beginning of a sentence is also a prominent position, but the subject alone does not receive emphasis by being placed first.

Chapter 3 — A Few Matters of Form

• Colloquialisms: Use them naturally without quotation marks.
• Exclamations: Use exclamation marks sparingly and only for true exclamations or commands.
• Headings: Leave space at the top of the first page for editorial notes, place the heading a quarter of the way down, and omit periods after titles or headings.
• Hyphen: Use hyphens in compound adjectives and consult a dictionary for guidance.
• Margins: Keep right and left margins roughly the same width, unless extensive annotations are expected.
• Numerals: Use figures or Roman notation for dates and serial numbers, except in dialogue where spelling them out is preferred.
• Parentheses: Punctuate sentences with parenthetical expressions as if the expression were absent.
• Quotations: Use colons to introduce formal quotations and commas for quotations in apposition or as direct objects. Place commas and periods inside quotation marks. Indent and start on a new line for longer quotations. Do not use quotation marks for indirect discourse or familiar phrases.
• References: Abbreviate frequently cited titles and list full forms at the end. Use parentheses or footnotes for references.
• Syllabication: Consult a dictionary for proper syllable division at line breaks.
• Titles: Use italics with capitalized initials for titles of literary works, unless writing for a periodical with different conventions. Omit initial A or The when using possessives before titles.

Chapter 4 — Words and Expressions Commonly Misused

This chapter provides guidance on words and expressions that are often misused or considered bad style. It emphasizes the importance of using specific and clear language rather than relying on vague generalities. Here are some key points:

• Aggravate/Irritate: "Aggravate" means to worsen something already troublesome, while "irritate" means to annoy or vex.
• All right: Always written as two words.
• Allude/Elude: "Allude" means to refer to indirectly, while "elude" means to escape or avoid.
• Alternate/Alternative: "Alternate" refers to every other one in a series, while "alternative" refers to one of two possibilities.
• Among/Between: Use "among" for more than two things or people considered collectively, and "between" for more than two considered individually.
• And/or: Avoid this construction, as it can lead to ambiguity.
• Anticipate/Expect: Use "expect" for simple expectation.
• As good or better than: Rephrase the sentence to avoid this construction.
• Being: Avoid using "being" after "regard...as".
• But: Avoid unnecessary use of "but" after "doubt" and "help".
• Can/May: "Can" means "am able", while "may" expresses permission.
• Care less: Use the correct form "couldn't care less".
• Case: Often unnecessary and can be omitted.
• Claim: Use "claim" when referring to laying claim to something, not as a substitute for "declare", "maintain", or "charge".
• Compare to/Compare with: Use "compare to" to point out similarities, and "compare with" to point out differences.
• Comprise/Constitute: "Comprise" means to include or contain, while "constitute" means to make up or form.
• Contact: Use more specific verbs like "get in touch with", "look up", or "phone".
• Cope: Use "cope with" in formal writing.
• Currently: Often redundant with present tense verbs.
• Data: Treat as plural and use a plural verb.
• Different than/Different from: Use "different from".
• Disinterested/Uninterested: "Disinterested" means impartial, while "uninterested" means not interested.
• Divided into/Composed of: Use "divided into" for physical division, and "composed of" for what something is made of.
• Due to: Use as a synonym for "attributable to", not as a substitute for "because of" or "owing to".
• Each and every one: Avoid this phrase except in dialogue.
• Effect/Affect: "Effect" (noun) means result, "effect" (verb) means to bring about, and "affect" means to influence.
• Enormity: Use only for monstrous wickedness, not bigness.
• Enthuse: Avoid this verb and use "enthusiastic" instead.
• Etc.: Use sparingly and only when the reader understands what is omitted.
• Fact: Use only for verifiable matters, not matters of judgment.
• Facility: Avoid this term and use specific nouns like "school" or "hospital".
• Factor: Often a hackneyed word; replace with more direct expressions.
• Farther/Further: Use "farther" for physical distance and "further" for time or quantity.
• Feature: Avoid as a hackneyed word, both as a noun and verb.
• Finalize: A pompous and ambiguous verb.
• Fix: Use in the sense of "make firm" or "place definitely", not as a colloquialism for "arrange" or "prepare".
• Flammable/Inflammable: Use "flammable" for clarity, and "inflammable" otherwise.
• Folk: A collective noun, use the singular form only.
• Fortuitous: Means happening by chance, not fortunate or lucky.
• Get: Avoid the colloquial "have got" for "have". Use "got" instead of "gotten" for the participle.
• Gratuitous: Means unearned or unwarranted.
• He is a man who: Avoid this redundant expression.
• Hopefully: Use in the sense of "with hope", not as a substitute for "I hope" or "it is to be hoped".
• However: Avoid starting a sentence with "however" when it means "nevertheless".
• Imply/Infer: "Imply" means to suggest or indicate, while "infer" means to deduce from evidence.
• Importantly: Avoid and rephrase the sentence.
• In regard to/In regards to: Use "in regard to" or "as regards".
• In the last analysis: A bankrupt expression.
• Inside of/Inside: Use "inside of" only in the adverbial sense of "in less than".
• Insightful: Avoid as an overstatement for "perceptive".
• In terms of: A piece of padding, usually best omitted.
• Interesting: An unconvincing word; avoid using it in introductions.
• Irregardless/Regardless: Use "regardless".
• -ize: Avoid coining verbs by adding this suffix.
• Kind of/Sort of: Use in their literal sense, not as substitutes for "rather" or "something like".
• Lay/Lie: "Lay" is transitive and "lie" is intransitive. Remember the principal parts of each verb.
• Leave/Let: Do not misuse "leave" for "let".
• Less/Fewer: Use "less" for quantity and "fewer" for number.
• Like/As: Use "like" for nouns and pronouns, and "as" for phrases and clauses.
• Line/Along these lines: Overworked; use more specific alternatives.
• Literal/Literally: Avoid using to support exaggeration or metaphor.
• Loan/Lend: "Loan" is a noun and "lend" is a verb.
• Meaningful: A bankrupt adjective; choose another word or rephrase.
• Memento/Momento: Use "memento".
• Most/Almost: Use "almost" in formal writing.
• Nature: Often redundant; replace with more specific wording.
• Nauseous/Nauseated: "Nauseous" means causing nausea, while "nauseated" means feeling nausea.
• Nice: Use sparingly and only in the sense of "precise" or "delicate".
• Nor/Or: Use "nor" after negative expressions, not "or".
• Noun used as verb: Avoid using nouns as verbs when a suitable verb already exists.
• Offputting/Ongoing: Avoid these awkward and inexact adjectives.
• One: In the sense of "a person", use "one's" instead of "his" or "her".
• One of the most: Avoid this weak formula.
• -oriented: A clumsy device; find better ways to indicate orientation.
• Partially/Partly: Use "partially" for a degree or condition, and "partly" for a physical part.
• Participle for verbal noun: Use the possessive case with gerunds.
• People/Persons: Use "people" as a political term and "persons" for individuals.
• Personalize: Avoid this word and simply write good prose.
• Personally: Often unnecessary and can be omitted.
• Possess/Have/Own: Avoid unnecessary use of "possess".
• Presently: Use in the sense of "soon", not "currently".
• Prestigious: An adjective of last resort; use sparingly.
• Refer: See "allude".
• Regretful/Regrettable: Use "regrettable" for something that is unfortunate.
• Relate: Do not use intransitively to suggest rapport.
• Respective/Respectively: These words can usually be omitted.
• Secondly/Thirdly: Use "second", "third", etc.
• Shall/Will: In formal writing, use "shall" for the first person and "will" for the second and third person in the future tense.
• So: Avoid using as an intensifier.
• Sort of: See "kind of".
• Split infinitive: Avoid unless you want to emphasize the adverb.
• State/Say/Remark: Use "state" only to express something fully or clearly.
• Student body/Students: Use "students".
• Than: Ensure no essential words are missing in comparisons using "than".
• Thanking you in advance: Avoid this presumption and simply make your request.
• That/Which: Use "that" for restrictive clauses and "which" for nonrestrictive clauses.
• The foreseeable future: A cliche and a fuzzy expression.
• The truth is... / The fact is...: Avoid these phrases as sentence beginnings.
• They/He or She: Use the singular pronoun with distributive expressions like "each" or "everyone". Avoid using "they" to refer to an unspecified individual.
• This: Ensure the pronoun "this" clearly refers back to the intended antecedent.
• Thrust: Use sparingly and for specific applications.
• Tortuous/Torturous: "Tortuous" means winding or twisting, while "torturous" means causing pain or suffering.
• Transpire/Happen/Come to pass: Use "transpire" only in the sense of "become known".
• Try and/Try to: Use "try to" in formal writing.
• Type/Kind of: Use "kind of".
• Unique: Do not use with degrees of comparison.
• Utilize/Use: Use "use".
• Verbal/Oral: "Verbal" may refer to written or spoken language, while "oral" refers only to spoken language.
• Very: Use sparingly and choose strong words instead.
• While: Use with its literal meaning of "during the time that", not as a substitute for "and", "but", or "although".
• -wise: Avoid using indiscriminately as a suffix.
• Worthwhile/Worth while: Use "worthwhile" (one word) as an adjective, and "worth one's while" for actions.
• Would: When expressing habitual action, use the past tense without "would" if the time frame is already specified.

Chapter 5 — An Approach to Style (With a List of Reminders)

This chapter explores style in its broader sense, emphasizing that good style emerges from clear thinking, effective communication, and the writer's individual voice. It offers the following reminders:

• Place yourself in the background: Focus on conveying your message, not showcasing your personality.
• Write in a way that comes naturally: Use familiar words and phrases, but revise and refine your work.
• Work from a suitable design: Plan and structure your writing for clarity and coherence.
• Write with nouns and verbs: Use strong nouns and verbs to convey meaning, rather than relying on adjectives and adverbs.
• Revise and rewrite: Editing and revision are essential parts of the writing process.
• Do not overwrite: Avoid overly ornate or complex language.
• Do not overstate: Maintain credibility by avoiding exaggeration.
• Avoid the use of qualifiers: Eliminate weak and unnecessary qualifiers like "rather", "very", "little", and "pretty".
• Do not affect a breezy manner: Avoid slang, jargon, and overly casual language in formal writing.
• Use orthodox spelling: Follow standard spelling conventions.
• Do not explain too much: Trust your readers to understand the context and implications of your writing.
• Do not construct awkward adverbs: Avoid adverbs that are not used in spoken language.
• Make sure the reader knows who is speaking: Use attributive tags clearly and naturally in dialogue.
• Avoid fancy words: Use simple, direct language that is appropriate for the context.
• Do not use dialect unless your ear is good: Accurate and consistent use of dialect requires careful study and attention to detail.
• Be clear: Strive for clarity and avoid ambiguity in your writing.
• Do not inject opinion: Unless relevant, avoid inserting personal opinions into your writing.
• Use figures of speech sparingly: Avoid overusing similes and metaphors, and maintain consistency within metaphors.
• Do not take shortcuts at the cost of clarity: Avoid abbreviations and jargon that your readers may not understand.
• Avoid foreign languages: Write in English unless there is a specific reason to use foreign terms.
• Prefer the standard to the offbeat: While being aware of language trends, rely on established usage and avoid trendy jargon.
• Focus on pleasing yourself: Write for an audience of one and prioritize your own satisfaction with the work.